Development of Education in Kenya

1. 0 INTRODUCTION2 1. 1 Definition of terms3 1. 2 Background information4 1. 2. 1 Pre-colonial education4 1. 2. 2 Post colonial education in Kenya (Neocolonialism)4 1. 3 National Aims/Goals of Education in Kenya6 1. 4 Structure of education6 1. 4. 1 Early Childhood Development and Education7 1. 4. 2 Primary education8 1. 4. 3 Secondary education9 1. 4. 4 Teacher Education9 1. 4. 5 Tertiary Education10 1. 4. 6 University education11 1. 5 Administration system11 1. 5. 1 Permanent secretary11 1. 5. 2 Finance and administration Division12 1. 5. 3 Directorate of Education12 . 5. 4 Field Service Education Officers13 2. 0 CHALLENGES FACING THE FORMAL EDUCATION IN KENYA14 2. 1 Recommendations to the Challenge of Education in Kenya17 3. 0 Conclusion18 3. 1 References. 19 1. 0 INTRODUCTION The provision of education and training to all Kenyans is fundamental to the success of the Government’s overall development strategy. First, the long term objective of the Government is to provide ev ery Kenyan with basic quality education and training, including 2 years of pre-primary, 8 years of primary and 4 years of secondary/technical education. Education also aims at enhancing the ability of Kenyans to preserve and utilize the environment for productive gain and sustainable livelihoods. Second, development of quality human resource is central to the attainment of national goals for industrial development. Third, the realization of universal access to basic education and training ensures equitable access to education and training for all children, including disadvantaged and vulnerable groups. Fourth, education is necessary for the development and protection of democratic institutions and human rights. Hence, this paper aims at describing the development of formal education in Kenya. It will first of all explore formal education in pre-colonial era. It will then show how different commissions have contributed to the development of formal education in post-colonial era. The paper will also shed light on the national goals of education, the structure of education and finance system in each level of education through government initiatives. Moreover, it will look into the administration of the education system and finally discuss the various challenges facing the education sector and their recommendations. 1. 1 Definition of terms Education According to Sifuna and Otiende (1992) education is the process of acquiring worthwhile accumulated knowledge, skills attitudes and values from one generation to the next. From this point of view therefore, education is meant to teach a student how to live his life by developing his mind and equipping him to deal with reality. Formal as defined by Webster Dictionary is â€Å"relating to or involving the outward form, structure, relationships, or arrangement of elements rather than content†. It may also mean following or according with established form, custom or rule. Formal education A formal education program is the process of training and developing people in knowledge, skills, mind and character in a structured and certified program. The features of formal education include Classrooms, teachers, students, content and others (Sifuna and Otiende, 1992). 1. 2 Background information 1. . 1 Pre-colonial education Sifuna, Chege and Oanda (2006) observe that historical records reveal that Kenyans had access to education as far back as Johann Ludwing Krapf and Johannes Rebman. Formal education was introduced basically to promote evangelism but later on it become an instrument for production of skilled labour for the Europeans farms and clerical staff for colonial administration. The missionaries determi ned the type of education African had to have – they built schools, managed them determined the curriculum and influenced education policies. It all started in 1846 with the church missionary society (CMS) establishing a school at Rabai the Coast province and others across Kenya such as Friend school Kaimosi (1903), Maseno school (1906), Jamhuri high school (1906), Europeans girls, Kenya high school (1908), Mangu high school (1925) and others. During that time education in Africa, Kenyan included was stratified on racial lines in matters of system structure, curricula and resources. For example, the Europeans system had an pper hand resource, its curriculum was based on British traditions, Arabs and Asians system came second. Africans prepared youths to work on Europeans farms. 1. 2. 2 Post colonial education in Kenya (Neocolonialism) Sifuna and Otiende (1992) noted that racial segregation was abolished in 1960 as the country moved closer to independence. With the attainment of independence on 12th December, 1963;- a ministry of education was created. The school system in Kenya was brought under a localized standard curric ulum and public examinations. Since independence, the Government has addressed challenges facing the education sector through Commissions, Committees and Taskforces. The first Commission, after independence, came up with the Report of the Kenya Education Commission (The Ominde Report, 1964) that sought to reform the education system inherited from the colonial government to make it more responsive to the needs of independent Kenya. The Commission proposed an education system that would foster national unity and the creation of sufficient human capital for national development. Sessional Paper No: 10 of 1965 on African Socialism and its Application to Planning in Kenya formally adopted the Ominde Report as a basis for post-independence educational development. The Report of the National Committee on Educational Objectives and Policies (The Gachathi Report, 1976), focused on redefining Kenya’s educational policies and objectives, giving consideration to national unity, and economic, social and cultural aspirations of the people of Kenya. It resulted in Government support for ‘Harambee’ schools and also led to establishment of the National Centre for Early Childhood Education (NACECE) at the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE). The Report of the Presidential Working Party on the Second University in Kenya (The Mackay Report, 1981) led to the removal of the advanced (A) level of secondary education, and the expansion of other post-secondary training institutions. In addition to the establishment of Moi University, it also recommended the establishment of the 8:4:4 system of education and the Commission for Higher Education (CHE). It diversified the school curriculum with emphases on pre-vocational and technical skills (Republic of Kenya, 1981). The Report of the Presidential Working Party on Education and Manpower training (1988) focused on improving education financing, quality and relevance. This Manpower Training for the Next Decade and Beyond (The Kamunge Report) was at a time when the Government scheme for the provision of instructional materials through the National Textbook Scheme was inefficient and therefore adversely affected the quality of teaching and learning. From the recommendations of the Working Party in 1988, the Government produced Sessional Paper No 6 on Education and Training for the Next Decade and Beyond. This led to the policy of cost sharing between government, parents and communities. The Commission of Inquiry into the Education System of Kenya (The Koech Report, 2000) was mandated to recommend ways and means of enabling the education system to facilitate national unity, mutual social responsibility, accelerated industrial and technological development, life-long learning, and adaptation in response to changing circumstances. The Koech Report recommended Totally Integrated Quality Education and Training (TIQET). While the Government did not adopt the Report due to the cost implications some recommendations, such as curriculum rationalization have been adopted and implemented. Recent policy initiatives have focused on the attainment of education for all (EFA) and, in particular, Universal Primary Education (UPE). The key concerns are access, retention, equity, quality and relevance, and internal and external efficiencies within the education system. The effectiveness of the current 8-4-4 structure and system of education has also come under increasing scrutiny in light of the decline in enrolment and retention particularly at the primary and secondary school levels in the last decade. The Government is committed to the provision of quality education and training as a human right for all Kenyans in accordance with the Kenyan law and the international conventions, such as the EFA goal, and is developing strategies for moving the country towards the attainment of this goal. The implementation of Free Primary Education (FPE) is critical to the attainment of UPE as a key milestone towards the realization of the EFA goal (htt://www. virtualcampuses. eu/index. php/Kenya). 1. National Aims/Goals of Education in Kenya Aseey and Ayot (2009:6) state that: â€Å"in Kenya the fundamental goal of education is to prepare and equip the youth to be happy and useful citizens of the society. From this fundamental needs arise more aims of education†. In Kenya, there are seven specific goals of education, namely national unity, national development, individual development and social fulfillment, social equality, respect and development of cultural heritage and international con sciousness. 1. Structure of education Kenya's education system is a three to four tier system. In 1985 Kenya introduced the current 8-4-4 system: ? Primary education: 8 years: age 6-13 (free and compulsory) ? Secondary education: 4 years: age 14-18(subsidized for students in Day Schools and the Government provides fees guidelines to all public schools) ? Higher education: 4 years: age 19-21 (subsidized for those selected through the Universities Joint Admission Board) 1. 4. 1 Early Childhood Development and Education The provision of ECDE as observed by republic of Kenya (1999) involves households, community and Government efforts in the integrated development of children from the time of conception. The structure of ECDE provision is divided into that for 0-3 year-old children and for 4-5 year-old children. For this sub-sector, the MOES policy is to focus on 4-5 year-old children with a view to providing a holistic and integrated programme that meets the child’s cognitive, social, moral, spiritual, emotional and physical needs. The Government is already implementing measures that seek to improve the performance of this sub-sector. These include: establishing guidelines and standards for the management, supervision and curriculum development for ECDE; establishment of NACECE and District Centres for Early Childhood Education (DICECE) for purposes of in-servicing teachers and training of trainers; mobilizing communities and parents through awareness creation, and providing community support grants to support marginalized/vulnerable communities in collaboration with other partners. Other measures, which are being implemented to enhance quality education at this level, include: implementing a 2-year in-service training programme for ECDE teachers; mounting a 9-month training of trainers’ course; developing guidelines and syllabuses for ECDE programmes; enhancing the capacity of supervisors and inspectors to ensure quality of ECDE programmes; and equipping NACECE and DICECEs to meet the needs of the programmes. Despite the above measures, access, equity and quality in this sub-sector remain constrained by various factors that include: limited teaching and learning materials, inadequate ECDE centres; inadequate community participation; lack of a clear policy on transition from pre-primary to primary school; inadequate nutrition and health services; lack of enough trained teachers; low and irregular salaries for ECDE teachers and lack of clear entry age guidelines (htt://www. virtualcampuses. eu/index. php/Kenya). 0 1. 4. 1. 1 Financing of pre- primary education The pre-primary education is basically controlled by private institution, religion and organization. It`s finance purely depend on the parents previously but currently the government has allocated some money to finance this level of education. 1. 4. 2 Primary education According to Ministry of Education (1987), this is the first phase of the national 8. 4. 4 system of education. The course last for eight years. Its aim is to ensure that functional and practical education that will meet the needs of the majority of children who terminate their formal education at standard eight. Financing of primary education in Kenya is universal, free and compulsory to all Kenyan citizens. The government through constituency development fund has constructed physical facilities, purchased teaching and learning materials and employing teachers. The primary school curriculum is uniform throughout the country. It is nationally developed at the Kenya institute of education by the subject experts. The government of Kenya recognizes that provision of universal primary education as an important milestone to economic and social development. In particular it has been established that by providing primary education to women, a society is able to hasten its development. The government, since January 2003 has managed to implement free primary school education programme that has seen a tremendous increase in the number of children attending school. The Government has also increased its budgetary allocation to education as well as introducing a Constituency Bursary Fund for efficient facilitation of education at the grassroots level. The implementation of the Universal Free Primary Education, as part of the Millenium Development Goals (MDGs), has earned Kenya the prestigious Education Award 1. 4. 2. 1 Certification Two certificates are awarded to students in primary school level these are; The Kenya Certificate of Primary Education awarded by the Kenya National examination council and the Kenya Primary Living Certificate issued with the authority of the Director of Education. 1. 4. 3 Secondary education The secondary education in Kenya comprises of 4 years of education in which an exam referred to as Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCES) is done to finish this level of education. It has three compulsory subjects English, Kiswahili and Mathematics, a science section where a student chooses all or two sciences among Chemistry, Physics and Biology. The last section of the structure comprises humanities in which a student must pick one subject and two at maximum, these subjects are Geography, History, C. R. E and Social Ethics. Lastly there is a category of subjects known as applied sciences and they are offered by limited school and a student is allowed to pick one subject in this category, they include Technical Drawing and Design, Woodwork, Metalwork, Art and Design, Electricity, Aviation and Power Mechanics. Students who obtain a grade of C+ and above are eligible for admission at Kenyan public Universities but due to limited positions the grade is shifted annually and can go as high as B+. There are two categories of secondary schools in Kenya, namely public and private schools (Bogonko,1992). 1. . 3. 1 Financing of secondary school education The public secondary schools are funded by the Government or communities and are managed through a Board of Governors and Parent Teacher Associations. Subsidized for students in Day Schools and the Government provide fees guidelines to all public schools. The private schools, on the other hand, are established and managed by private individuals or organizations an d the parents pay full fees for their children. 1. 4. 4 Teacher Education There are  five teacher education programmes in Kenya as observed by Republic of Kenya (1999). These are: The Early Childhood Development and Education (ECDE) teacher education programme in which teachers are trained through in-service courses in District Centres for Early Childhood Education (DICECEs). The National Centre for Early Childhood Education (NACECE) develops the curriculum, trains trainers and supervisors, and conducts monitoring and evaluation. The Secondary teacher education which is provided at the diploma and degree levels in diploma teacher training colleges and universities respectively. The Technical teacher education is offered at the Kenya Technical Teachers College in Nairobi which trains diploma level teachers for secondary schools, technical training institutes, primary teachers’ colleges, institutes of technology and vocational polytechnics. The Special needs education teacher education is provided to professionally qualified practicing teachers through a  two-year diploma programme at the Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE) and finally the Primary teacher education (PTE) which is provided in 18 certificate level colleges through a two-year, residential programme. The entry criteria for primary teacher education require a candidate to have acquired a minimum grade of C (plain) in the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE). In addition, one must have obtained a minimum grade of D in Mathematics and C- in English. For the entry of a diploma programme for secondary teacher education requires a candidate to have acquired a minimum grade of C (plain) in KCSE and minimum grade of C in the two teaching subjects of his/her choice and a minimum grade of C+ for a degree course. To qualify for the award of the Primary Teacher Education Certificate, a student must pass all the practical teaching and obtain a pass in all eight subjects. The final grade – distinction, credit, pass, fail – is determined by passes in the six best performed subjects. 1. 4. 5 Tertiary Education These are middle colleges that offer certificates, diplomas and some undergraduate degrees. Their curriculum is supervised by the ministry of higher education. The source of finance is self sponsored and in some cases by the government through higher education loan board or subsidence free to the public institution (Ministry of Education, 1987). 1. 4. 6 University education In Kenya, they are both Public universities Private universities. The Public universities offer certificates, diplomas, degrees, masters and Ph. D. They are sponsored by the government by paying salaries to the staffs including lecturers, provision physical facilities. In addition, students who are selected by the government were given some financial support through Joint Admission board (J. A. B). The Private universities on the other hand, are self-sponsored and only support students to get some financial support from the government through Higher Education Loan Board (HELB). 1. 5 Administration system Getao (1996:57) explains that: â€Å"The Kenya education system is centralized in the sense that administration, curriculum development and the formulation of policies are centralized. In Kenya, parliament makes the laws pertaining to education. Occasionally, the President makes decrees related to education. He appoints the ministers who preside over the interpretation and implementation of the educational policies. † The system of education in Kenya is administered from two separate ministries namely the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education each headed by the Minister and an assistant Minister . The Ministry of education is responsible for formal education from pre-primary education, special education, primary education, secondary education and Teachers education. The Ministry of higher education is responsible for higher education which include Technical and vocational training colleges, Tertiary colleges and universities. The administration departed of ministry of education is broadly based on functional units. These are: 1. 5. 1 Permanent secretary – Heshe is the head of departments in the ministry. – Heshe is the overall head of the ministry. – Heshe is the accounting officers. – He she is the formulator and implementer of government policies on education. 1. 5. 2 Finance and administration Division This is the wing of the administrative department of the ministry responsible for day to day administrative and financial management affairs of the ministry. It is headed by the Deputy Secretary (Finance and Administration) who is responsible to the permanent Secretary and takes action on all policy matters and cabinet decisions that involve the Ministry and prepares all Cabinet Memoranda for the Ministry. 1. 5. 3 Directorate of Education According to Ministry of Education (1987) the Directorate of Education is the chief professional officer of the ministry. Heshe is responsible for both the ministry and the permanent secretary on all professional matters to do with Education. The Functions of the Directorate of Education are to Formulate policies give directions and management of professional functions relating to education. He/she is to deal with welfare of the students, develop curricula for the ministry, initiate training programme, Inspect schools and teachers, promote teachers, give scholarship and award to students, give grants and grant-in-aids to school as well as to produce and supply educational materials and equipments. The Directorate has three divisions namely The Administration and Management of Programmes (AMP), The Education Policies and Programmes (EPP) and The Quality Assurance Officers (QAO). The Administration and Management of Programmes are in charge of registering the schools and institutions, following up audited reports, giving grants and grant-in- aid to schools, inspecting reports, Discipline of students, giving annual report and admission and transfer of students. The Education Policies and Programmes is in charge of the formulation of policies for the Pre-primary Education, Secondary Education, Technical Education, Special Education, Teacher Education, The Kenya Institute of Education (KIE), University Education and other forms of Tertiary Education, 8-4-4 System of Education and Scholarship Awards to Overseas Universities. The Quality Assurance Officers department is a section in the Ministry of Education that deals largely with the maintenance and improvement of standards of education in Kenyans school and colleges. It inspects the methods of teaching and the teaching and learning materials or resources. 1. 5. 4 Field Service Education Officers This is another part of administration in education in provincial level, District level, Division and village or vocational levels. They represent the government in their level of operations. They are; i) Provincial Director Education Officers (P. D. E O. ) ii) District Education Officers (D. E. O. ) iii) Education Officers (E. O) Other administration departments in the ministry of education include: i) Board of Governors (B. O. G) who represent the government in the school level. ii) Parent Teachers Association (P. T. A) that links the school and the community. iii) Kenya National Examination council. This is body of administration is used to supervise examinations and offer certificate in different levels of education in Kenya such as primary level, secondary level and teacher education. iv) Kenya Institute of Education (KIE). This body of administration is used in publishing the syllabus and drawing of curriculum in education system of Kenya. v) Teacher Service Commission (T. S. C. ) This is the body that recruits and employs teachers. It also sucks teachers who are not behaving well. Other education bodies that are used in administration include Jomo Kenyatta foundation, Kenya Education Staff Institute (K. E. S. I), Commission for Higher Education (CHE), Kenya Literature Bureau (KLB), Public Universities Inspection Board which lists all sessional papers, parliament acts such as the Education Act, draft legislation, information on Kenya universities and tertiary institutions, reports, news †¦ Kenya National Examination Council(KNEC) which is the national body responsible for overseeing national examination in Kenya for primary and secondary education amongst others. 2. 0 CHALLENGES FACING THE FORMAL EDUCATION IN KENYA Although the Kenyan Government is putting effort in improving education in Kenya, there still many challenges that are facing the sector which need to be addressed. These Most of these challenges have been observed by Sifuna, Chege and Oanda (2006) in most of the African countries. They are as follows: There is inadequate funding to the education sector. The education sector requires sufficient funding for it to undertake its duties such as curriculum development education research and the implementation of educational policies, teacher payment of salaries and so on. The Kenya education sector receives its funding mainly from the Kenyan government through the Ministry of Finance and also from international donors. However, there is still minimal funding which may be attributed to the misappropriation of funds as well as poor funding of the education sector by its primary source; the Kenyan government. Consequently, the poor funding will result in the unsatisfactory enforcement of the education sectors mandate. There may be poor curriculum development and education research as well as the improper implementation of educational policies. The Shortage of trained teachers is another challenge in education sector. The education sector struggles to meet the demand of teacher to the sector due to the shortage of teachers. This may be attributed to trained teachers attrition in preference to other fields which offer better salaries and remuneration packages as opposed to what is offered by the teaching profession. There is also the ‘Brain drain ‘ where trained teachers go to teach in other countries where they believe there are better working conditions in terms of benefits salaries and remuneration packages as opposed to those offered here in Kenya. An acute shortage of trained teachers to the education sector results in the employment of untrained teachers to meet the supply deficit. The introduction of the free primary education and free secondary education initiatives in 2003 by the Narc Government in pursuit of education for all saw a sharp increase of student enrollments. At the time the government had not put in place adequate facilities and educational resources subsequently, there arose a strain on the already limited available resources for instance the overcrowding in schools where classroom were packed beyond capacity. Several recommendation were made afterwards which saw the subsidization of education in the place of free education which requires the government to pay for part of resources required while the guardians and parents in the programme meet the remaining expenses. Some parents were still unable to meet subsidized cost of educating their children which in turn saw the dropping out of school for children who lack school fees (http://www. /par. or. ke/documents/policy). In marginalized areas such as the nomadic communities in Northern Kenya student enrollment and classroom attendance is poor as a result of the influence by the nomadic culture which requires nomadic families to move with their livestock from place to place in search of food water. Seeing that the children cannot be left behind, they are left with no choice but discontinue the learning. Gender disparity as observed by Kibera and Kimokoti (1997) poses a challenge to formal education in Kenya in terms of the ratio of boys to girls enrolled to educational institution. In some communities, especially in rural areas where traditions are still followed, boys are mostly enrolled for an education while girls are left at home to take of the home and family. There is the belief in such communities, that educated girl would be of more benefit to her matrimonial home hence her paternal home would not be able to reap the benefits of having her educated. There are also limited alternative education programmes such as teenage mother programmes to cater for the education of those girls who drop out of school due to early pregnancies. Most of these girls have to drop out of school for some time until the time they have their babies and even then they would have to stay at home take care of their babies, limiting their chances to go back to school and finish their education. Enrollment into adult education programmes is discouraging and a challenge to the education system. Many illiterate and semi-illiterate adult fears the stigma they may receive from their family, friends and society and this may beep from enrolling into such programs. Moreover, there are a few adult education programmes and institutions which is a great challenge to those adults seeking to receive such an education. Special education to cater for those students with intellectual and or physical disabilities is minimal with most guardiansparents choosing let their children with such disabilities to stay at home rather than enroll them in special schools thereby denying them an education all together. Moreover, such institutions receive minimal funding especially from the government which makes them unable to successfully deliver. Nevertheless, there are Social emergent issues which are effecting the education directly or indirectly. HIVAIDS Pandemic which both affects and affects both the teachers and students is one of the current issues in education sector. Teachers who are infected with the pandemic may be unable to or find it difficult to attend lessons due to acute symptoms of the disease as well as the side effects of its treatment. Moreover, they may be unable to face the classroom due to the stigma associated with being HIV positive. Death of teacher from HIVAIDS is also a challenge to formal education since it contributes to teacher shortage due to the loss of trained manpower to the education sector. As for the students who are infected they may have to drop out of school due to the stigma of being HIV positive as well as being of poor health to attend school. Moreover, students who are affected have to drop out of school to take care of their infected relatives. Drugs and alcohol abuse by teachers and students is another challenge. Teachers who abuse alcohol and or drugs perform poorly as teachers since they are unable to teach appropriately or disrupt the whole learning process. Moreover, students who abuse drugs and alcohol tend to be undisciplined there by contributing to arise of conflicts in the school. Such students eventually drop out of school or are kicked out all together. Students’ indiscipline such as strikes and riots which disrupt the learning process while causing damage to school educational resources like classrooms and dormitories are frequent cases in Kenya. Violence trauma that was caused by post election violence in 2007 is a reality to the Kenyan students today. In most schools, no counseling was provided for students when the institutions opened, after the violence that followed the disputed 2007 presidential election. Some students were victims of the violence, which was witnessed in many parts of the country between January and March 2008. Without adequate counseling at the right time, such students might have rioted and burnt down school property and projecting the effects of what is commonly referred to as delayed trauma (http://www. par. or. ke/documents/policy). 2. 1 Recommendations to the Challenge of Education in Kenya The Kenya government should increase funding to the education sector to facilitate the undertaking of its mandate such as curriculum development, education research and implementation of educational policies. The 20112012 Kenya budget saw the education sector receive a boost in funding; KSH 53. 2 billion was se t aside for tertiary education,KSH 8. 2 Billion for free primary education and KSH18. 5 billion for free day secondary education, and KSH 1. 67 billion for free school feeding programme. However, with the funding made available to education sector the government still needs to place some emphasis on the management of funds to avoid the mismanagementmisappropriation of the funds. The challenges of the shortage of should also be addressed. The government of Kenya should revise the salaries and remuneration packages in teaching profession. Better benefits, salaries and remuneration packages would also trained teachers staying with the teaching profession rather than applying their knowledge and skills in other profession. Also, there could a reduction of â€Å"brain drain† as teachers would stay in Kenya to teach. Subsequently, there would be a declined in the employment of untrained teachers thereby maintaining the quality standard of education. On the part of student enrollment, the government should strive to make education accessible as possible to all. For instance the government of Kenya should provide sponsorship programmes and bursaries for those students unable to pay school fees. Moreover, for students’ marginalized areas, the government could provide mobile schools or set up intensive programme for those students from nomadic communities. The government should also establish programme to for the needs of adult education as well as special education, while conducting sensitization efforts on the importance of adult literacy and special literacy respectively. 3. 0 Conclusion This paper has described the formal education in Kenya in pre-colonial and post- colonial era. It has also looked into the current education policies that have revealed the government efforts in improving education in order to achieve its objectives. Nevertheless, it has shed light on the challenges facing the education sector in its continued development and implementations of the government policies geared towards vision 2030. It is therefore necessary for the government to address these issues and to be practical in looking for their possible solutions, so that education can fully contribute to the development in all aspects. 3. 1 References Bogonko, S. N. (1992). A history of modern education in Kenya (1895-1991). Nairobi: Evans Brothers (Kenya) Ltd. Kibera, L. W. and Kimoti, A. (2007). Fundamentals of sociology of Education. Nairobi: University of Nairobi Press. Ministry of Education [1987], Education in Kenya Information Handbook. Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation. Mwanje. J. I. , Akoten, J. Riechi, A. , Barasa, T. , Oyugi, L. , Omolo, J. , Junge, L. , Kimbwarata, J. and Mukasa, G. (2008). Radical Reform for Kenya’s Education Sector: Implementing Policies Responsive to Vision 2030. Retrieved July 6, 2011, from http://www. /par. or. ke/documents/policy Republic of Kenya (1964). Kenya Education Commission Report, part I. Nairobi : Government Press. Republic of Kenya (1981). Second university: Report of presidential working party (Mackey Report). Nairobi: Government Printer. Republic of Kenya (1976). The National Committee on Educational Objectives and Policies(Gathachi Report). Nairobi: Government Printer. Republic of Kenya (1999). Totally Integrated Quality Education and Training (TIQET): Koech Report. Nairobi: Government Printer. Sifuna, D. N. , Chege, F. N. and Oanda, I. O. (2006). Themes in the Study of the Foundations of Education. Nairobi: Jomo Kenyatta Foundation. [pic][pic]

Poverty Reduction Strategy

Introduction With one-fifth of the world's population not owning land or possessions at all. Very little land. They may have no legal rights to the land they farm, or they may work as hired labor on large farms. Low incomes and rural poverty are often the result. Taking into consideration by the world's standard the average person in the world lives on less than a dollar a day. In recent years, poverty reduction continues to be a challenge in Nigeria. 69 million people, or 54% of the population, lived below the poverty line In 2004. He Nigerian government has promoted agricultural growth wrought several policies noting that agriculture â€Å"outperforms all other sectors In reducing poverty† as it is the sector responsible for the most employment, especially among the poor. These policies including; the National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategies (NEEDS) and II, the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program (CAD), the National Food Security Program (NSF ), and initiatives for crops including cassava and rice. Partly as a result of these programs, agricultural growth rates Jumped from 3. % annually In 1990-1999 to 5. 9% annually In If several agricultural subsection reach official growth targets, Nigeria will experience 9. 5% annual agricultural growth and 8. 0% annual GAP growth. Moreover, the poverty rate will be halved by 2017 Recommendation 1 Land Reforms Redistributing land to small-scale farmers can do much to reduce their poverty. When rural families have land, and secure control over that land, they are likely to grow more food and see their Incomes rise. Land security can mean food security. Land reform can increase both employment and Income.Small farms employ more people per hectare than the larger units, often to the benefit of the landless and unemployed. And owning land means that family farmers often secure the bank credit that was previously denied them. Nonetheless, land reform is achieving much, especially when it is community-driven and tailored to local conditions and when it puts the poor at the forefront of the process. The Rural Poverty Report 2001 stresses the particular Importance of Glenn women more control over land as this would give them more power in the community and reduce their vulnerability within the household.Dividing large farms into smaller units often means that more food is produced per hectare. This is happening in a number of countries and Nigeria is no exception. Gender disparity in legal rights: exacerbating women's vulnerability In both the indigenous customary law, women are considered minors. This means that women?in law, and often In practice?do not control or own major assets, particularly land. This fundamental Imbalance In the property rights of men and women leads to gender differences in the pattern of poverty. De facto female headed households (I. E. Here a male co-head is nonresident for large parts of the year) have the highest core poverty levels of any household type. Labor-intensive Labor-intensive agriculture has significant growth and poverty-reduction potential: The small plots under present yields and methods of cultivation cannot provide earnings from farming, households may find it advantageous to switch to higher valued crops, such as market vegetables or perennial products, instead of cultivating predominantly maize, as at present. Those who stay in maize can also achieve higher yields than at present.Research elsewhere in Africa has produced evidence that the growth potential from smallholder centralization and exploitation of comparative advantage can also generate considerable multiplier effects on local incomes. As more small farmers commercialism they create demand for small farming implements, hired labor (backward linkages) and trading services, small transport, local consumer goods, and so on (forward linkages) which stimulate local labor demand. Both the initial and subsequent rounds of growth through demand link ages are labor-intensive and can be accessible to poorer households. Improved equity and efficiency in public education spending Country-wide, over 50 percent of the people who live in households headed by people with no education live in poverty. In contrast, the poverty ratio is halved for people in households whose heads have obtained some secondary education. This suggests that higher incomes are related to more education and that ensuring affordability of primary and secondary education for the poor is thus an investment with high returns for society and the household.Improved equity and efficiency in public education spending will lead to better outcomes?at a lower cost?for both poor households and the Government. 4 Enabling the Growth of Smallholder Agriculture: Smallholder agricultural centralization will need to be a central element of the poverty reduction and growth strategy of Nigeria. This emphasis is consistent with Insignia's comparative advantage in labor-intensive s ectors and location near a major port.There is scope for expansion, diversification and intensification to access export markets, through centralization of agriculture into high value crops such as vegetables, perennials, etc. And through the related multiplier effects and demand linkages. The capacity of rural areas to boost incomes is expected to increase, educing pressures on urban labor markets and services. Focusing public efforts on removing impediments to agricultural growth is thus a priority for reducing poverty in all of Nigeria.This bottom-up development approach is critically contingent, however, on cataloging and protecting investments for small farmers on Sways Nation Land. This requires: Rural land tenure reform to assure more secure property rights to small farmers. Promoting more sustainable cattle grazing management. Promoting small-scale financial savings and credit mechanisms in rural areas. Implementation of Policies l. Outlining a Poverty Reduction Strategy A n ew, equitable and dynamic pattern of growth and human development is required for a serious poverty reduction agenda in Nigeria.Unless public action is undertaken to remove major structural constraints to labor-intensive development, however, livelihoods are expected to continue stagnation and poverty to worsen further. The analysis of poverty can be used to identify priority areas for action. This agenda for reform will require courage, vision and sensitivity on the part of the country's leaders. Basic themes of a poverty reduction strategy for Swaziland are reposed below: 2 Ensuring Effective Human Development Investments: productive assets in which a country can invest.To facilitate higher productivity of labor, lower fertility and greater mobility of labor in these changing labor markets, the quality, relevance and affordability of basic education and health levels of service most accessed by the poor needs to be improved. A structural shift in the public spending pattern is nee ded to focus on primary and secondary education levels rather than academic tertiary levels, and on preventive, core health services rather than curative services.Priorities should focus on: Parameterization of education spending towards quality and efficiency at primary and secondary levels. Improving skills matching to labor market needs. Expanding early childhood development programs for poor communities. Emphasizing a primary and preventive health service. 3 Insuring the Poor against Major Risks: Nigerian poor continue to be highly vulnerable to major shocks and to be locked in poverty traps because of excessive uninsured risk.Public action needs to be selective, preventive and targeted where possible to reduce the economic limitability of the poor to the major risks. A public social protection program with the following priorities could have the most cost-effective impact in reducing the vulnerability of the poorest of the poor in Nigeria: Cross-sectarian, multi-level response to AIDS; Drought preparedness; Legal reform to provide equal rights to women; and Safety nets which are primarily work-based and self-targeted. Accountability, Information and the Poor A more coordinated approach to local development efforts?based on accountability of local government structures to the community and better monitoring of poverty information?is essential for improving economic management and poverty reduction efforts.Poverty information is very limited The Government, Nags, donors, and others have identified the lack of data on poverty trends and their determinants as a major constraint to establishing greater poverty focus in policy formulation. There is also no clear institutional framework for coordinating data generated by different institutions. Such data and an institutional structure to channel information to policy-makers and community organizations could facilitate social debate and prepare the groundwork for enacting reform.Strengthening Institutions to Incr ease the Poverty Impact of Policies: Finally, the speed and effectiveness with which the public policy framework can orchestrate this transformation can be improved by governance structures which are accountable to communities and with ongoing monitoring and evaluation of the ways in which growth dynamics are affecting the poor?both positively and negatively. Priority should be attached to: Institutional mechanisms which ensure poverty planning at central level; Local level coordination and community participation; and Establishment and use of a poverty monitoring and analysis system.

Boy in the Striped Pjs

â€Å"The boy in the striped pyjamas† by John Boyne is a book about a nine year old boy called Bruno who is growing up in Berlin during World War II. He lives a very comfortable life in a large house with his parents and his sister, not forgetting the maid and the cook. But this all changes very soon when his father who is a very high-ranking soldier is promoted to â€Å"Commandant† and to Bruno’s sadness the family have to move to a place which Bruno refers to as out-with. Bruno immediately becomes very homesick for many reasons.He misses his grandparents, his house, his three best friends for life and of course his adventures. Bruno is a very curious boy and while looking out of his window one day he noticed that there were other people, lots of people. It isn’t long before Bruno decides to ask his father about these people but his father tells him that they are not people at all. It turns out that it is the extermination camp Auschwitz and due to Brunoà ¢â‚¬â„¢s curiosity and boredom he decides to explore and it is here at the fence that he meets and befriends a young boy called Shmuel.Almost every day he meets Shmuel and they talk by the fence both on separate sides but they are both desperate to play with each other and conveniently Shmuel’s father goes missing and he needs Bruno’s help to find him. They make a gap in the fence just big enough for a small boy to fit through and Bruno goes into the camp with a pair of striped pyjamas and it is then that something unimaginable happens. In this essay my task is to describe how well John Boyne has involved the reader throughout his challenging novel to ensure our sympathies for Bruno.

Strength Assignments Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Strength Assignments - Essay Example The proposal got accepted. Since it was my idea, my team members looked up to me to know the details and where to start. I began by searching my knowledge base all I knew about selling Babson hats. I assigned Martha to fill in the information gaps by searching over the internet. She refused as she said she did not like the idea of selling Babson hats and warned that she was going to leave the team. I thought I could easily convince her since all other members agreed. With the consent of others, I came up with the idea that we all would take her to Pizza Hut for lunch if she did not leave. That came out to be a magic trick. Thus, we all started and it was me who assigned everyone his task. When somebody disagreed, I sat down with him, listened to his objection and would come up with a sound alternative that was acceptable to everyone. That was the biggest strength I found me, that is, I could help others to find compromises between differing viewpoints. I also tried to introduce new a nd fresh ideas to the team which everyone welcomed. We had arguments over the project most of which were so time-consuming that we would not know when the class time was over. This was because we seldom reached a decision acceptable to all members. Everyone had his objections which I tried to resolve using my wits and logic. I would not get swayed by emotional arguments often raised by Bob whom I had named Mr. Emotion and everybody had laughed so much. The only weakness I found in me was that I occasionally became aggressive when somebody came late for discussion or left early or did not meet deadlines. I think I could better convince them to be punctual by being nice instead of being aggressive. I always tried to remain on the positive side during all arguments and this was what all members of my team loved when they felt disappointed or distressed over the project. I tried to lift their spirits through my humor and commitment. I always praised them

Business law coursework Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business law coursework - Essay Example Lord Kenyon held: â€Å"There are many situations in life, and particularly in the commercial world, where a man cannot by any diligence inform whom he deals; in which cases he must apply to those whose sources of intelligence enable them to give that information. If no injury is occasioned by that lie, it is not actionable; but if it be attended with a damage, it then becomes the subject of an action. It is admitted that Defendant’s conduct was highly immoral, and detrimental to society. And I am of opinion that the action is maintainable on the grounds of deceit in Defendant, and injury and loss to Plaintiff.†1 The next steps in proving the existence of tort of deceit is the fact that the claimant relied on the provided information and this caused loss to him. Even though it seems that Peter’s situation fits under these regulations, there is one big â€Å"On the other hand†: â€Å"in an action for deceit, it is not enough to establish misrepresentation alone; Fraud is established where it is proved that a false statement is made: (a) knowingly; or (b) without belief in its truth; or (c) recklessly, careless as to whether it be true or false.† 2 This is the House of Lords’ ruling in the case of Derry v Peek (1888). Breach of duty occurs in the situation when the defendant owed a duty of care and his actions were lower than the reasonable standard. Smith and Keenan (2010, p.464) state that the test of a reasonable man should be applied to individuals â€Å"who have held themselves out as possessing a particular skill†3 as to average specialist in that domain. For example, as in Peter’s case, Bumble&Co – recommending themselves as a company which conducts financial analysis – were expected to act as an average accountant. By providing a financial statement of poor quality, Bumble&Co actually provided misinformation to the shareholders. The company ignored its duty of care, established by objective standards, and provided false information. It accepted to

Why strong economies should support countries weak economies Essay

Why strong economies should support countries weak economies - Essay Example The paper tells that aiding underdeveloped countries by the industrialized countries is a very noble character since human nature is protecting and helping others. It is therefore worth understanding that helping poor countries is an internationally common practice whose main motive is based on moral obligation. Aiding underdeveloped nations act as an additional resource that empowers countries to develop themselves economically by financing their own projects. A humanitarian concern is the main reason behind helping poor countries. Funds or any aid offered to an underdeveloped country by the industrialized nation may assist in carrying out very important projects and programs such as elimination or reduction of diseases and poverty. This is because most poor countries are not able to raise funds that can help them in undertaking such kind of programs. Aiding is important because ‘It’s a necessity in eradicating third world poverty’. Availability of cheap labor in the Asian and other colonized countries as well as slavery catapulted economic development of the developed countries. Also, for harmony and peaceful coexistence, industrialized nations should act responsibly by helping the poor countries. It should be noted that ‘it is a moral duty to help those less fortunate than you’. Assistance by the rich countries may also be accompanied with technological transfer particularly when the aid is technical in nature and this may be of great help in boosting the economic growth of the underdeveloped countries. Moreover, the aid may come with training and education that may be of great use in promoting various infrastructural and human developments that are useful in propagating economic growth. Indeed ‘aid helps train teachers, buy textbooks for school’. Issuing aids further help in promoting the relationship between the developed and underdeveloped countries. By supporting countries experiencing financial difficulties, the strong economies tend to exercise equality in various sectors such as education, clean water, and healthcare. Supporting education and healthcare programs may boost literacy and health levels thus enhancing harmony in global development and reduces diseases and infections which may perhaps spread to the rich countries if proper treatment is not taken. Even for countries that do not need aid ‘at the end of the day, it is a matter of life and death’. On the other hand, giving an aid may not be the best thing to do to underdeveloped countries because of several negative effects and intentions it has on the underdeveloped nations.

Introduction to Personal and Professional Practice - Final Assignment Essay

Introduction to Personal and Professional Practice - Final Assignment - Essay Example However, experience alone cannot impact learning outcomes unless an individual is taught how to reflect or look back and apply their experience in the milieu of today’s dynamics. According to Boud et al. (1985, p. 7) experience-based learning is essentially a combination of three distinct phases; preparation, engagement and processing. During the course of the module I realized that real life experiences and happenings influenced my approach towards the learning outcomes the most, specifically in the preparation stage where I gradually began to comprehend then define the targets I associated with and ultimately hoped to achieve through the learning experience. Even though, researchers such as Day (1993) have audaciously asserted that the role of reflection in personal and professional development has proved to be insufficient, I still hold the view that the strong correlation between experience-based learning and structured reflection as established by Boud et al. (1985) is im perative to the achievement of desired outcomes, aims and objectives when undertaking efforts to seek personal and professional enhancement. ... earning experience was greatly enhanced once it was understood that knowledge of personal and professional development and practice has the ability to shape the course of an individual’s career by aiding skill enhancement, developing problem-solving expertise and promoting critical thinking. According to a research conducted by Liaw and Huang (2012), the self-regulation ability of a learner in an e-learning environment is dependent upon two variables; the extent to which the learner is satisfied with the knowledge being offered and the degree to which the learner perceives the learning outcome as useful or of practical application in a workplace setting. It should be noted that based on the aforementioned research, perceived satisfaction and usefulness of e-learning initiatives in the practical world as well as the interactive setting itself can be established as a basic need of learners, the inexistence of which can discourage potential pupils from exercising commitment towar ds successfully completing the module or even opting for it in the first place. Supervisors, mentors and teachers can employ the findings of such studies to identify the specific requirements of learners when designing personal and professional development programs to ensure that participants reap maximum benefits out of the curriculum which has wider applicability in a practical scenario. This part of the essay will discuss the skills and techniques that are required to continue effective learning. Ames and Archer (1988) concluded that motivation processes based on goal-orientation are a critical factor in facilitating effective learning, perhaps because an individual’s efforts that are directed towards the achievement of an objective also revive the notion of self-efficacy that is based upon

Western Democratic Political Parties Are In A State Of Crisis Essay

Western Democratic Political Parties Are In A State Of Crisis - Essay Example Today, there is a shift and erosion of traditional roles of political parties, and their membership levels have continued to decline over the years. Additionally, the importance of political parties has diminished due to the emergence of candidate-centered party campaigns, and finally, there is the rise of professionals in western political parties and decline in partisan attachment of party members. Although restoring the traditional party form might be impossible, the present parties can overcome this crisis by redirect their efforts to restoring their effectiveness and efficiency in society, basing on democracy. . Political parties are essential, as they contribute to the functioning of democracies, and are responsible for political pluralism in various countries. These also mobilize their members and supporters to take on leadership roles in a country (Diamond & Gunther 2001). Ideally, political parties ought to develop alternative policy platforms, provide ideological direction, and define the agenda of the government in a country (Hofmeister & Grabow 2011). In Western democracies, the contribution of political parties to the political process, and their positions in the public mind, has invigorated a scholarly debate in the recent years. Various data from national election surveys and public opinions show that the public in most Western democracies such as the USA, Great Britain, Canada, among others, consider political parties to have declined (Gallagher, Michael & Mair 2000). Basing on relevant evidence and concepts, this essay focuses on how and why western democratic political parties are in a state of crisis today. First, Western democratic political parties are in a state of crisis today, as they have failed to perform their traditional roles in society appropriately. In the past, democratic political parties acted as an essential part of their governments, and were promoters of democracy. However, today, most democratic political parties have drift ed from the traditional roles by serving below the expected standards (Kartz & Mair 1995). This decline in the function of western political parties and loss of party roots is evident in the way political parties today play their representative role. Instead of being representatives of the public as the case in the traditional mass party, parties today have shifted from the wider society, and gotten more close to the government and the state (Kartz & Mair 1995). Money has contributed to this shift in political parties in the west, as these depend on state funding from the state. Therefore, these have prioritized their linkage with the state and government, and not the public. This pattern will eventually result the total diminishing of the traditional mass party (Gunther, Montero & Linz 2003). Therefore, parties have considered outsiders, who donate money to them, and not the public. Today, the non-political bodies such as NGOs have taken over the representative roles of political p arties, leaving political parties with the procedural roles only. A second way through which democratic political parties in the west are thought to be in a state of crisis is through the decline in their membership levels. According to Mair & Van Biezen (2001), in Western Europe, the overall membership levels of democratic political parties are on a decline. In 13 democracies in this region, statistics showed that the party membership as a percentage of the national electorate had fallen to 5.7% at the end of the 1990, from 9.8% in 1980. Over the years, the number of party members continues to decline, and this has

Christianity. What Went Wrong Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Christianity. What Went Wrong - Research Paper Example The conflict between Christianity and modern thought has been one of the intriguing parts that happened in those times. People know that modern thought is not really welcome in terms of Christian practices. Christianity has always been traditional and known to remain like that for years. Modernity, on the other hand, affects Christianity in a sense that it gives new ideas and raises questions that can influence the dignity of Christianity. There are studies which intentionally provide other meanings and interpretations of the Christian faith. In connection, these studies provide confusions to some Christian believers. Modern thought causes other people to have a different understanding of the Christian teachings. Modernity, in relation, had taken over the minds of the people in the nineteenth century. People started to transition themselves to a modernized world. Thus, giving them the new perspective that they have the freedom to redesign themselves and not just to stay in what seems to be the traditional way. There are many scholars who study the mystery behind Christianity. However, despite their efforts in making Christianity stand firm, these studies even led to rising of conflicts in Christian world. With all the modernity during the nineteenth century plus their studies regarding Christianity, everything went puzzled and confused causing people to start criticizing and questioning. In relation, one of the scholars who made a name in terms of theology during the nineteenth century is Friedrich Schleiermacher. He is said to be very influential during the nineteenth century. His influence has marked the history of theology. ... Hence, Schleiermacher has been named as the father of liberal theology. His study created many conflicts with regard to Christianity since he has a different view for religion. Roger Olson affirmed that, for Schleiermacher, Christianity and religion are all about deep and inner awareness (1999, 544). All religions, specifically Christianity, are based mainly in the experience of every human being. Roger Olson states that, for Schleiermacher, â€Å"it is distinctly human awareness of something infinite beyond the self on which the self is dependent for everything† (1999, 544). Schleiermacher cleared that in terms of principles, the two should not be in questioned: Christianity and science. In addition, Roger Olson notes that to Schleiermacher, any mystical divine interventions were not true. In his own viewpoint, these things do not exist at all (1994, 544). He even changed the traditional belief on the doctrine about the two natures of Jesus Christ. For him, instead of having this belief, it should merely focus on the experience of Jesus with the God-consciousness. The person who is known as the father of modern liberal theology proposed that spiritual feeling results to a true religion. Schleiermacher convinced people that to obtain true religion, one should submit a relationship to the source of life as stated by Gary Dorrien (1997, 12). In addition, Schleiermacher affirmed that one cannot have true religion if it is mainly based in morality, as well as doctrines. Gary Dorrien stated that knowledge, in terms of morality and science, should be taken away so that one can experience true religion and creates a relation with the source of life (1997, 13). Schleiermacher firmly believes that a person’s feeling plays a

Case study Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Case study - Assignment Example e liable to pay capital gains tax on the sale value if the price at which he sells is higher than the market price of the shares on the date he inherited them. If the total gain is less than  £ 10,000, no tax is payable and of course, sale at a lower price also does not attract tax (HMRC, 2012). 3. Critical Illness Cover pays out a lump sum amount when a specified illness occurs, which for Kyle’s mother was a minor stroke. Once the claim amount is paid, the coverage ceases and she is not entitled to any other payments from the insurance company. A Permanent Health Insurance (PHI) policy would have paid her up to 65% of her pre-tax earnings until her normal date of retirement which is 65 years of age (Conner, 2013). When Kyle’s mother first considered insurance, the PHI policy would have been a better choice as it would have covered any medical condition that prevented her from working whereas the Critical Illness Policy would have covered only a specified list of ailments. Since a medical condition that prevents work could occur at any age, the PHI policy would have paid her money each year until her scheduled retirement age (Bevis, 2009). For Kyle’s mother, the question now is whether the  £ 68,000 lump sum she received from her Critical Illness policy at the age 59 is better than 65% of her earnings for 6 years that she would have received with the PHI policy. This question can be resolved by finding out the yearly payments a PHI policy would need to make for 6 years that would equal the present value of the lump sum she received. The interest rate is assumed as 5%. The calculation is made in the table below and shows that an annual payment of  £ 13,397.19 for 6 years from the PHI policy would have the present value that equals the lump sum of  £ 68,000. To get these annual payments, the mother’s annual salary when she had the stroke should have been  £ 20,611.06. 4. Kyle and Helen need to make a personal financial plan to meet both

Bermuda Triangle Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Bermuda Triangle - Research Paper Example In this essay, we shall explain the mystery by examining the theories that have been postulated then give a conclusion. The Bermuda Triangle, also popularly referred to as the Devil’s Triangle, is an area in the Atlantic Ocean where it is believed several airplanes, ships, and other vessels have vanished without probable cause or explanation. Therefore, the disappearances are believed to be mysterious. The Bermuda Triangle’s specific location is the North western part of the vast Atlantic Ocean (Gibbs, 3). The area covering the triangle is a large area which is between the Puerto Rico, Florida, and Bermuda. It is one of the busiest sea routes frequently used by fishing vessels, cruise ships and other freight vessels destined to sea ports in Europe, North America, South America and the Caribbean Islands. Besides being a busy shipping lane, the triangle is also a busy route for both private and commercial airplanes. In a study conducted by the World Wide Fund for Nature whose main objective was to identify areas at sea that were most dangerous for shipping crew, the Bermuda Triangle was n ot included in the top ten list (McKinnon and Scott-Ireton, 193). The United States Coast Guard also has also distanced itself from the claims and theories offered to explain its mystery. It is prudent that to examine the theories that have been advanced to explain the mystery surrounding the Bermuda Triangle. There are several theories that have been suggested. However, there exist three major ones. The first theory is that the area in the Bermuda Triangle has magnetic properties which deviate from the norm and are thus unusual. This theory claims that compasses in ships plying the shipping lane across the Bermuda fail to indicate the true north and actually go off while within the triangle. This causes the ships to lose direction and disappear. However, the US Coast Guard, while indicating that it is

Chain of Command Essay Example for Free

Chain of Command Essay The main focus of Article II of the United States Constitution is the executive branch and the role that it plays in the government. By definition an executive is â€Å"a person or group of persons having administrative or supervisory authority in an organization.† The President, who is elected, is the head of the executive branch and the US government’s chain of command. Second in command is the Vice President who must also be elected. Article II is broken down into four sections in the Constitution and outlines who the qualifications to run, the term that a President can hold office, as well as the duties, responsibilities and powers that he has and the grounds for impeachment. Section 1 Section one of Article II outlines the executive power in 7 clauses. Clause 1 and Clause 2 support each other. Clause 1 states that the President of the United States shall hold office for a term of four years with a Vice President who must be elected for the same term and that executive power shall be vested in the President. Clause 2 describes the appointment and qualifications for presidential electors. In Clause 2, it says that each state shall appoint a number of electors equal to the whole number of senators and representative to which the state may be entitled in the congress but no senator or representative that hold office under the United States can be appointed as an elector. This means that each state chooses electors equal to the number of representatives, representing them in congress, but no senators, representatives or federal officers can become an elector. It then goes on to describe the original method of electing the president and vice president. Originally, an elector would cast two votes for the president, one at least one vote had to be from a state different than the elector’s and who ever had the majority of votes became the president and the vice president would be the runner up. If there was no person who received the majority of votes the House of Representatives could have chosen one of the five with the greatest number of votes. If there was a tie, the House of Representatives could have chosen one of the candidates. When the House would vote, each state representative would cast one vote, and a quorum of two-thirds applied in both houses. One member from two thirds of the States, and a member from two thirds of the states and a majority of all the states were necessary to choose a President. If two or more candidates tied, the senate broke the tie. This was superseded by the twelfth amendment which made some significant changes. Now, electors cast one vote for president and one for vice president rather than two votes for president. If there is a case where no presidential candidate receives the majority, the house chooses from the top three instead of the top five. In addition, the amendment requires the senate to choose the vice president from the candidates with the two highest figures if no vice president candidate receives the majority of electoral votes. The twelfth amendment also specifies that to be vice president, a candidate must also qualify to be President. Clause 3 states that congress may determine the time of choosing the electors and the day for casting their votes. Clause 4 states the qualifications for the office of the president. According to the clause, the president and vice president must be at least 35 years old, both must be a natural born citizen of the United States, and both must have been a U.S. resident for 14 years. The twelfth amendment required the vice president to meet all the qualifications of an eligible president and the twenty-second amendment prevents a president from being elected more than twice. The 5th clause states that in the case of removal of the president from office, or his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of office, the vice president shall assume his duties. In the case that both the president and vice president were removed, resigned, deceased, on unable, then congress, by law would declare which officer would act as president until the removal, death, resignation, inability were to occur or a president was elected. This caused much controversy when President William Harrison died in office. A debate occurred on whether vice president John Tyler would become president, or just be the acting president. Tyler felt like he had a right to become president, and eventually took the Oath of Office, while set the precedent for vice presidents, Millard Fillmore, Andrew Johnson, Chester Arthur, Theodore Roosevelt, Calvin Coolidge, Harry Truman and Lyndon Johnson to ascend to the presidency. Because of this, the Presidential Succession Act was adopted in 1947 which established the line of succession of the office of the presidency in the event that the President or Vice President becomes unable to fill the vacancy. The Presidential Succession Act makes clear that only someone serving as Vice President can ever succeed to the title â€Å"President of the United States† and anyone who takes office under its provisions can only act as President† even if they have to act for 4 years. Clause 6 of Article II states that the President shall be compensated, at stated times for his services. This compensation shall never be increased or diminished during the period he is elected and also during that period, he also shall not receive any other compensation from the United States meaning federal and local government. The Presidents salary is currently $400,000 a year. Clause 7 states that before he enters office, the president shall take the following oath or affirmation: â€Å"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States.† Section 2 Section 2 of Article II outlines the President’s powers while in office. Clause 1 of Section 2 states that the President shall be commander in chief of the army and the navy of the United States. Although he is the commander in chief, Article One gives Congress the right to declare war, not the President. The President may require the principal officer in each of the executive departments to give their advice in writing. Additionally, the President may grant pardons or reprieves for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. Clause 2 of Section 2 is also known as the advice and consent clause. The President exercises the powers in the clause with the advice and consent of the senate. The President can enter the U.S. into treaties but they aren’t effective until they are ratified by a two thirds vote in the senate. The President may also appoint judges, ambassadors, consuls, ministers and other officers with the advice and consent of the Senate. However, by law Congress may allow the President, heads of executive departments, or the courts to appoint inferior officials as they see fit. Clause 3 of Section 2 gives the President the power to fill vacancies that may occur during the recess of the senate by granting commission that expire at the end of their next session. Section 3 Section 3 of Article II outlines the Presidents responsibilities while in office. While in office, the President must â€Å"from time to time† give congress information on the State of the Union and recommend to congress’s consideration measures that he judges as â€Å"necessary and expedient.† The President may, in â€Å"extraordinary occasions† call one or both houses into session. If both houses disagree on the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them at a time he thinks is fitting. The President receives all ambassadors and other public ministers. Most importantly, â€Å"he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States.† The President commissions all officers including military and foreign service and although the President has discretion in how and when to enforce laws, he cannot refuse to enforce constitutional law. Section 4 Section 4 of Article II allows impeachment. Section 4 states â€Å"The President, Vice President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from the office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery or other high crimes and misdemeanors. â€Å" The President, Vice President, executive officers as well as judges can all be impeached by the House of Representatives and tried in the Senate. If an official is convicted by impeachment, he is immediately removed from office and remains liable to trial and punishment in court for civil or criminal charges. The trial, if any is separate from the impeachment itself. There have been two U.S. presidents that have been impeached by the House of Representatives, Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton but they were acquitted at trials that the senate held. The House Judiciary Committee voted on Articles of Impeachment for President Nixon, but he resigned before the full House of Representatives could vote, therefore he was never impeached. Why is Article II important? Article II is important because it establishes the office of the President and the Vice-President, and sets their terms to be four years. It defines the job that the President has to do and the rules that he has to follow. In a sense, it’s his job description and prevents him from overstepping his boundaries. Not only does Article II make the President Commander in Chief, it allows cabinet to aid him, and make treaties with other nations as he sees fit to protect us. It commands him to keep the Union informed about the status of country through the State of the Union address and to most importantly to enforce all laws.

Legal And Ethical Issues In Robotics

Legal And Ethical Issues In Robotics With the development of the technology over the past decade the Robotics has become one of conversational subject areas. As a result of mankinds ultimate innovations and accomplishments regarding to the Robotics, the social, ethical and professional norms have been affected in both positive and negative manner. Therefore, identify and analyze issues which might occur when implementing robot technologies an important and contemporary need. According to the VEX Robotics, Inc. (2012) the robotics is the science and technology which is used for inventing, accumulating, manufacturing and information processing of robots. With the robots, the tasks which are performed by humans can be automated in order to gain higher effectiveness and efficiency. A robot is an electronic device controlled by a program and able to carry out tasks of various kinds-it is a machine made to perform that humans might otherwise do (Wilson, C. 2007). In the current society robots are used in many different areas like education, entertainment, surgery, surveillance, military, farming, factories etc. The robots are capable of performing tasks accurately, high quality, speedily, safely than human beings and also they can perform dangerous tasks without much effort. Thus the robots and related robot technology provide various advantages for human lives and society with its technology. Currently robots are used to handle sensitive, critical and complex surgeries in accurate and effective manner. The robots are capable of performing surgeries with less pain, miniaturization, decrease blood loss, smaller incisions and quicker healing time. Unlike human surgeons these machines can perform tasks more smoothly with fewer side effects. It is true when there are fewer side effects patients lives will not get negatively impacted in the future after having a surgery. With the use of robots the surgeries can be done remotely, anywhere in the world without requiring the presence of a surgeon. This is very useful when handling surgeries where the surgeon and patient are not in the same geographical location. The technology made specialized surgeons to be accessed globally at anywhere in the world. Thus the robot science enhances the flexibility and availability of the medical field. Although Robots provide numerous benefits for human beings, on the other hand it might lead to create several ethical issues which may affect the patients condition negatively. Will people like to get treated from a soulless, emotionless machine? Most of the people will not like to get treated from robots because those machines dont have any idea or impression about the patients situation. Valuable human qualities like sensitiveness and carefulness is unforeseeable from robots. Another main issue is robots will not get trusted like a human surgeon. But in these cases patients are forced to trust on a machine. Thus, trust and freedom ethical principles are getting invaded. Robots are created by assembling heavy metal arms and other metal gadgets. Occasionally patient will get scared after seeing the robot because its appearance is not pleasant and familiar like a human surgeon. The situations like this might impact negatively for the patients condition. During a surgery, if machine ge ts malfunctioned or misused who will take the responsibility? The soulless, emotionless machine cannot take the responsibility like a specialized, well experienced surgeon. Thus moral responsibility and liability ethical principles are invaded. The researchers at the Harvard University has developed tiny organic DNA robot device to destroy cancer cells by sending important molecular instructions to infected cells (Mowatt 2012). This is significant invention in robot technology which can provide greatest benefit for human being by saving thousands of lives. Although these types of robot devices provide remarkable advantages, the technology can be misused. For an example if robot collected data (DNA) is used for further researchers or tests without having permission from the owner might leads to raise several privacy and security issues. DNA is strictly sensitive and confidential information of an individual where characteristics of a person can be fully exposed by analysing information. According to the Data Protection Act UK 1998 the information must be kept secure and must not be routed in any mode incompatible with the original use. When the data about a patients health is used for further researches without their knowledge, the Data Protection Act will get violated. Under the Public Interest section, British Computer Society (BCS) code of conduct defines to IT professionals that have due regard for public health, privacy, security and wellbeing of others and the environment. When robots are used as surgeons, the professionals who design those robots should concern about public health and wellbeing because it will be used to treat humans. Robots actions are very important during a sensitive and complex surgery as human life will depend on the tasks done by robot. Therefore professionals who design robots should accept the professional responsibility of their creation or design. In present robots are used for military purposes in many countries because it reduces the number of human involvement by saving lives in war. According to the article written by Marchant, G.E. et al. (2011) there are number of robots used for several wars. For an example U.S. military used unmanned aerial vehicles for unmanned air attacks in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and other countries. Further the article mentions that self-directed robots may be able to act more effectively than human beings because they can be designed without emotions, able to act independently, conservatively and also can process more information. When looking at the theoretical perspective according to the Deontological theory killing is wrong as destroying human life, freedom and property is not a right action. But the consequences of the action will be positively impacted on the massive number of people. Because of that from the perspective of Consequentialist theory the war can be a right action. Although robots provide various advantages for military purposes, on the other hand several ethical principles will raise. War is something about killing people and destroying their property. Human lives and property will get severely impacted though use human soldiers or robots. As a result of that right to life, liberty and security ethical principles are getting invaded. Sometimes war can be very unethical when one party uses military unmanned vehicles and other party use humans as soldiers. The situations like that become a war between humans and machines. The value of the human life will be compared with the value of soulless, emotionless machine. Human life is precious because once it lost we cant have it back. But once a machine damaged or malfunctioned, it can be repaired or replaced by another machine. Human life cannot be regenerate or replaced like robots and it is valuable gift. When using military unmanned vehicle robots against human soldiers, the value of human life wi ll be degraded in front of those metal machines. Thus human recognition and dignity ethical principles are getting invaded. The Public Interests section in BCS Code of Conduct mentions that IT professionals should have care for public health, privacy, security and wellbeing of others and the environment. When robots are used in wars human lives, privacy and security will be invaded and as a result of that public interest section of the code of conduct is getting violated. Avoiding injuring others, their property by false or malicious action or inaction is mentioned under Professional Competence and Integrity section of BCS Code of conduct. When robots are used to destroy human life and property in wars, the associated code of conduct is invaded. In wars, human life and property will be severely damaged and destroyed. According to the Human Rights Act 1998, everyone has the right to life and protection of property. Thus destroying human life and their properties in war will violate the act. The article 5 in Human Rights Act mentioned that everyone has the right to liberty and security of person. When war destroys human lives by depriving peoples liberty and protection that will also violates the Human Rights Act. Tracking someone via a robot equipped with surveillance camera can create both positive and negative issues in society. For an example tracking a criminal or terrorism suspicious person by authorized party to expose drug trafficking information and many more illegal activities can be identified as positive effects while secretly spying a person with intent to cause or harm is a negative effect. On the other hand, the privacy and freedom can get invaded when use robots to track whereabouts of an individual as these robots are capable of secretly spying without users knowledge by hiding itself. According to the article written by Hambling (2011), the Lockheed Martins Advanced Technology Laboratories has developed a robot which is capable of spying at night, hide itself when hear footsteps of an unseen guard and move again when the road is clear. Using a robot like this for tracking can be very harmful because it cannot be easily detected. When an individual is tracked or monitored by using surveillance robot wherever that person moves will be notified to a third party and that may leads to affect privacy, security and freedom of that individual. When a third party is more knowledgeable about an individual, that person can be easily controlled or blackmailed. Thus individuals freedom, autonomy and privacy rights are getting affected. Spying or tracking might not only be a risk for the person who is subject to spying but also the people that person interacts or having relationships with. If the tracker has the intention of harm to persons life, the family, relations and the society around that person might get negatively impacted. Under the Public Interest section, BCS code of conduct defines that IT professionals should have due regard for public privacy and security. When the unethical tracking is performed through a surveillance robot, the tracker breaks the public interest section of the code of conduct. Avoiding injuring others, their property by false or malicious action or inaction is characterized under Professional Competence and Integrity section of BCS Code of conduct. If the tracker does tracking with the intention of harm to an individuals life or their property, according to the professional rules the action is guilty. Tracking a person secretly can provide inappropriate ethical, religiously and politically offensive results which may be viewed as the violations of Human Rights Act UK 1998. Currently robots are used by most industries in their manufacturing processes because it is capable of generating accurate, reliable and high quality products when compared to human workers. Robots actions are controlled by programmed computer application or electronic circuit. As a result of that there is a low probability of generating inaccurate outputs unless machine gets malfunctioned. Due to its mechanical nature and computerized control, a robotic arm can carry out a repetitive task with great precision and accuracy, thus providing improved, consistent product quality (Bengtson, H. 2010). Unlike robots, human workforce gets tired and bored when carrying out repetitive tasks under long time periods and as a result that the efficiency of generating output will get degraded. When the efficiency of production gets low, the number profits made by company will become low automatically. The mechanical approach and automated control made manufacturing robots more efficient and speedy which redirects business into higher production rate where company can attain competitive advantage than with human workforce. There are some manufacturing industries where humans are required to work at uncomfortable and dangerous environments like defusing bombs, mixing chemical ingredients, attaching equipments under higher temperature etc. But robots will not get impacted by these environmental conditions as humans. Companies can purchase most suitable robots for their working environment and manufacturing process. Thus manufacture will get benefited greatly by reducing costs involve in production process through replacing human workforce by automated robot workforce. When looking at the shareholders perspective, replacing current workforce by robots will leads to make more profits for them as overall efficiency in production gets increased. Thus shareholders are greatly benefited by using robots in manufacturing processes. Consumers will able to experience accurate, reliable an d high quality products because of robot workforce. Although robots will maximise productivity by reducing costs, this might leads to create serious social issues like unemployment, employee relationships and attitudes towards to the work. When current workforce is replaced by robots the employees will become jobless. According to the studies carried out by American Psychological Association (2009), 78% of Americans reporting money as a significant source of stress. The stress created as a result of unemployment will not only affect negatively for an individual but also individuals family and well-being. The trouble of unemployment can also affect unexpected conclusions for children like sicknesses, distress and depressive symptoms. The unemployment will also create social divide within society by increasing the gap between families with children that both parents are get paid and families with children both parents are not get paid. This is terrible social issue which has indirect relationship on poverty and inequality. When poverty within a society gets increased, there is a high probability of increasing illegal activities like burglary, theft, fraud etc. According to the researches carried out by Carmichael and Ward (2000), there were high accretion in burglary, theft and robbery in 1992, 1993 and 1994 years because overall rates of youth and adult men unemployment get increased during those years. The article illustrate in 1989, 1990 and 1991 the youth unemployment rate varied between 12-18 per 100,000 population and total number of crimes were about 6562.7, 7845.8 and 9213.7. Between 1992 and 1994 the youth unemployment rate has increased and varied between 21.94 -19.5 per 100,000 population and total number of crimes were about 9816.8, 9727.5 and 9234.0. According to the statistics there was a visible increment of crime activities along with the growth of unemployment. It is true there is a fine impact on illegal activities with unemployment and poverty of a society. When human workforce is replaced by ro bots, there is a high possibility of amplifying illegal and crime activities in the society because of the increased unemployment population. Robots in a workplace will also create negative impact on human relationships, employee attitudes towards to the work and employer. When human workforce replaced by robots, the faith that the employees have kept on the organization will be dented as employees will began to think the employer only concerned about the efficiency and productivity of the work not the relationships or friendly working environment. Thus employee attitudes towards to the work and employer will get negatively affected. Robots cant be friendly or emotional like human workers and as a result of that there will not have a pleasant working environment filled with employee relationships. As robots are not able to communicate like humans the relationships and bonds among robots and rest of the employees will remain in a lowest level. Actually it is hard to justify whether the work or individual life is more important but the employer is always responsible for protecting relationships and job security of employees. What will be the impact when employees are fired from job without prior notice and compensations? The situations like this will create pathetic condition around individuals and their families. However in the social perspective, organisations can validate the importance of the robot workforce relating it to rising productivity, efficiency and minimise the wastages. Under the Employment Rights Act 1996, UK dismissing an employee without giving prior dismissal notice is illegal. The law also give right for employees to complaint the tribunal about unfair dismissal. Therefore employers are legally bound to take the responsibility of dismissing an employee. Currently robots are mostly used as human companions for elderly and childish people. Assist elderly or disable people, clean household equipment are some of core functionalities of robot helpers. United Stated National Institute of Standards and Technology (US NIST) has developed a robot to help disabled people move around their home. This robot acts as a wheelchair but also gives a helping hand to get out of bed and get on and off other seats. The robots like this are really useful to overcome physical difficulties that are faced by disable people when performing day to day tasks. The Nuresebot, Pearl is another multi-disciplinary, multi-university effort aimed to provide assistance for elderly people at homes. This robot is capable of reminding elders about regular activities such as eating, drinking, taking medicine, using the bathroom, guiding them through their environments, calling for help if they fall and display messages on the screens for people with hearing loss (Carnegie Mellon University n.d.). Elders need more care and attention because they are more vulnerable to abuse and also physical changes in old age reduce the ability to conduct activities of daily living by maintaining independence. Robot helpers or robot companions mentioned above will be a fair solution for taking care of elders and protecting them by being abused. Using robots for taking care of elders and children is very helpful in current busy life styles. Unlike Asian countries, Europeans are not having strong relationships with their parents after get married or being matured. In a situation like that robot helpers would be a best solution where protection of elders is assured. Although using robot helpers for elders is an effective, opportune solution this will leads to create several ethical issues. Elders will not able to get same experience and exposure like having companion with human being because these robots cant gossip, share ideas, emotions and communicate like humans. Therefore robots will not able to fulfil the emptiness in old heart like a human companion and as a result of that human relationships will get negatively affected. When using robot companions for children, their personality, behaviour and attitudes will get impacted. The robot will do everything that child command without questioning. Then the child began to think everyone will do everything that command without questioning and he/she can get everything without any interference. Thus robot companions will lead to create drastic negative attitude and behavioural change in child. During the infant and child years, children grow quickly and tend to learn about the environment they are interacting with. Without having a proper guiding adult to teach and guide in to the right path, child personality will also get degraded. Soulless, emotionless and inexperienced robot will not able to teach values and norms associated with human lives. Parents are the most important character in childs life and they are capable of understanding childs needs than anyone does. Love, affection and caring are critical requirements for better growth and development in a child. A metal robot is not able to fulfil these emotional feelings which are unique to living beings. Thus effects on human relationships, human personality and changes in attitudes social issues are raised when using robots as human companions or home helper. Experiences with touch, movement, voice sounds, and chances to see faces and their changing expressions these seem to be essential contributors to emotional and mental development (Mercer 2009). Without having these factors, the language development, ability to u nderstanding in the child will be weakened and as a result of that child will become socially isolated. Robots are expensive and everyone cant get the technology experience because of its high price. That will create a digital divide in the society, where only rich people can have robots experience. According to the Public Interest section in BCS code of conduct, the professionals should support equal opportunities and benefits of IT by including all sectors in the society. When robots are unaffordable and cannot experience for every human being as equal, this will breaks the following BCS code of conduct. Every technology has associated limits and vulnerabilities which may create severe negative impacts on individuals. Robots are reacting according to the limited set of tasks they are programmed into and any action that is out of the program might not be fulfilled. For an example a human companion that is programmed to take care of elderly or childish person might not be able to respond emergency situations like fire, explosion, theft etc. The situations like above can harm for people who are vulnerable to abuse. Elders are more vulnerable to abuse because physical changes appear with the age, made them to slow respond or inability of responding properly for actions. Children are also vulnerable like elders because they dont have knowledge or experience to respond emergency situations like matured people. These vulnerable groups may tend to trust on robot machine because it will be the only companion they have to interact in most of their time. If machine gets malfunctioned, the life of these vulnerable groups will be in a danger. Thus the negative implications and possible risks which may arise when adopting technologies like robotics should be much concerned. The individuals have to face both positive and negative Ethical, Social, Legal and Professional issues related to robot technology. The negative implications of robot should be clearly identified by IT professionals in order to make human lives more comfortable via secure information technologies while protecting ethical, social and legal rights of human being. By analysing and understanding both negative and positive impacts prior adopting technology may assist to reduce several issues which may arise related into robotics. In the conclusion, I recommend organisations and individuals to implement suitable policies when using new robotic inventions in their business and household that is transparent to ensure negative effects of the technology has been controlled and prevented.